In my developmental psychology class, we each chose a specific developmental period to research in detail. I selected the prenatal period, influenced by my interest in pediatrics, and wrote a paper about the physical, cognitive, and social-emotional aspects that play role in this phase of human growth. I also address some of the challenges and opportunities within this time period in hopes of giving a helpful snapshot of what encompasses the prenatal period.

Abstract

            This paper analyzes the biological, cognitive and psychosocial development of human life which begins in the prenatal period, from the moment of conception. This paper uses a collection of sources with research focused on the overall growth through these various lenses and then it focuses on the influence of the mother’s health which includes the risks of teratogens, miscarriage and infertility. It offers some suggestions for how to combat these negative aspects of pregnancy and limit how much risk the fetus is subjected to. Finally, this paper concludes with a discussion on the portrayal of birth in media, which often overdramatizes a pregnant mother’s emotions. 

                        The Prenatal Period: Development of a Fetus

                      The prenatal period is one of rapid growth from the formation of a zygote to the full development of the fetus in a mere 40 weeks. The growth of a fetus is reliant on the health and wellness of the mother so when there are changes in the environment for both mother and child, there can be significant physical and cognitive effects that could last later on into adulthood. 

                                    Introduction to Development of the Fetus 

                        The prenatal period, lasting from conception to birth, is where a fetus develops the major physical structures and functions that they will use later on throughout the rest of their life. The most noticeable change is the physical growth, which can be detected through movement that usually appears around 20 weeks (Hepper, 2015). The cognitive development of a fetus is its ability to learn, which appears a few months into pregnancy once gestation has advanced and the fetus recognizes the mother’s voice and other sensory systems have developed (Hepper, 2015). The psychological and emotional development of a fetus is harder to detect, but often the stress and emotions of the mother impact the activity and prenatal behavior of the fetus (Bergh, 1990). There are many different aspects to how the mother and child influence each other’s activity both positively and negatively.

            Physical growth in the prenatal period is usually obvious by the growth of the mother’s belly. Inside the womb, the fetus’s cells are growing. During ovulation in a female, the follicle drops into the corpus luteum, preparing the endometrium for the attachment of the embryo (Cleveland Clinic, 2014). The sperm fertilizes the egg, either giving an x chromosome to make a girl or a y chromosome to make a boy. Then the human chorionic gonadotrophin hormone is released into the body serving as an indicator in pregnancy tests (Cleveland Clinic, 2014). The fertilized egg is called a blastocyte and quickly divides at rapid rates as it enters the uterus from the fallopian tube (Cleveland Clinic, 2014). The first two weeks post conception are the germination period and weeks two through eight are labeled the embryonic stage. During the embryonic stage, the amniotic water sac forms around the embryo and the placenta develops into a flat round organ which delivers nutrients and oxygen to the growing embryo (Cleveland Clinic, 2014). Around eight weeks, the physical features start to appear including the start of the arms and legs, and the neural tube which eventually becomes the central nervous system (Cleveland Clinic, 2014). The digestive tract and sensory organs also develop within the second month of pregnancy and bone tissue begins to replace the soft, flexible cartilage (Cleveland Clinic, 2014).

By month three, the limbs have fully developed, the mouth can open and close, often allowing the ability to detect the very first stages of teeth development (Cleveland Clinic, 2014). During this month, the brain has also significantly grown, which means cognitive abilities start to function (Feldman, 2017). During month 4, the heartbeat becomes audible, the fingers and toes are well developed, and the eyebrows, hair and nails are all formed. In this month, the fetus can often start to suck its thumb, which means sucking reflex has developed (Cleveland Clinic, 2014). It is around 20 weeks that doctors recommend a first ultrasound because by that time, the genital regions of a fetus are fully developed and can be more easily detected (Cleveland Clinic, 2014). By month six, the skin of a fetus is more reddish, with visible wrinkles, and veins through the very think skin. The eyes start to open and sometimes hiccups are even felt by the mother (Cleveland Clinic, 2014). By month seven, the baby is mature and developed, hearing at full capabilities and responds to sense of sound, touch, taste, and light (Hepper, 2015). With the major growth of muscles and bones in a tight space, movement is more frequent, resulting in the fetus changing positions. The mother will often feel kicking much more than in previous months. (Cleveland Clinic, 2014). By month nine and into month ten, the final few weeks of pregnancy, the fetus’s other reflexes form; blinking, closing of eyes, turning of the head, and grasping the fingers. It is in these final weeks that the fetus fully senses touch, light and sound (Cleveland Clinic, 2014). 

            As the brain matures, and interconnections between the neurons occurs, the fetus’s ability to learn dramatically increases (Hepper, 2015). The fetus starts to habituate at 22-24 weeks, as exposure to different auditory stimuli repeatedly occures (Hepper, 2015). Over the months the fetus spends in the womb, the mother’s voice plays a vital role in the ability for the development of recognition skills that play a role in the continuity of the relationship between mother and child after birth (Hepper, 2015). With increased sound exposure, the fetus brain activity increases which is essential for the development of speech later on (Hepper, 2015). The more language the fetus can absorb, the greater their capacity for language distinction and cognitive understanding of structure of language (Hepper, 2015). As the fetus grows, different behaviors and sensations develop. Touch sensations develop around 8 weeks, light reception around 26-28 weeks, and sound around 22-26 weeks (Hepper, 2015). The senses help the fetus react and adjust to the environment and any changes that might occur naturally or from teratogens that enter the environment. The fetus begins to recognize the smell of the mother, solidifying a familiar object they can hold onto through birth and later provides a stable base from which they can explore (Hepper, 2015). 

            The social and emotional toll during the prenatal period often appears more obviously on the mother. They are often overwhelmed and excited to welcome a new person into the world, but it is a lifechanging experience that often brings fear and concern surrounding the health and wellness of the mother and baby. It is essential that the mother receives good nutrition, lives in a minimally stressful environment and has the family support that she needs. Without these resources, the added elements can cause severe emotional stress, often resulting in hyperactive fetuses that later in childhood will likely present with high anxiety (Van de Bergh, 127).  The mother plays a crucial role in the social environment the fetus experiences. The more anxious and stressed she is, the more likely her child will carry those characteristics with them into the real world and through childhood. 

            Navigating the Opportunities and Challenges of the Prenatal Period

            There are many different challenges of the prenatal period, including teratogens such as alcohol, smoking and drugs or other factors like maternal stress, infectious diseases, and gene mutations that cause physical and cognitive defects. There is also the possibility of pregnancy problems such as miscarriage and infertility. It can be disconcerting to think about the many ways a fetus can be negatively impacted but it is also important to remember the incredible ways that the body adjusts, and the health care advancements that have been made to help prevent and detect these different sources of stress.  

            Teratogens are harmful environmental factors that usually produce a birth defect (Feldman, 2017). Usually the first 20-40 days post conception are the most vulnerable for the fetus, demonstrating what is known as a critical period. These are periods where certain factors pose the biggest threats and can result in the most harm. The most common is the Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder, which is caused by the consumption of excessive amounts of alcohol by the mother during pregnancy (Tearne, 2015). This often results in biological damage to the organs and behavioral problems later on in life (Hepper, 2015). FASD can also be associated with spatial and visual reasoning issues and or lower intelligence (Feldman, 2017). Cigarette smoking, although less common now a days than in previous decades, would also be characterized as a teratogen that increases the risk for internalizing behaviors such as ADHD. (Tearne, 2015). Women who smoke are 50% more likely to have mentally retarded children (Feldman, 2017). Smoking can also reduce oxygen content available for the fetus and increase the carbon monoxide in the mother’s blood (Feldman, 2017). Statistics show that an astounding 100,000 miscarriages a year are a result of smoking pregnant mothers (Feldman, 2017). Another teratogen would be drugs, which can vary from simple aspirin pills that inhibit growth and development, to marijuana which can restrict the oxygen flow and cause irritability, or even hard drugs like cocaine which causes restriction of arteries, preventing blood flow and ultimately leading to serious deficits or even death (Feldman, 2017). 

            Maternal stress also poses a risk to the fetus, particularly towards mental health later on in life (Tearne, 2015). The children who experience such adverse environments often have higher risk of developing mental health issues (Tearne, 2015). Other things to be cautious of are infectious diseases like measles that result in physical impairments or even death in some cases (Cleveland Clinic, 2014). 

Another possible challenge occurs as cells divide in the body. As cells form, gene mutations can occur, causing significant changes to the physical and psychological abilites of the fetus. There are five main genetic disorders, such as Down Sydnrome, Fragile X syndrome, and Sickle-cell anemia to name a few (Feldman, 2017). When cells are dividing during meiosis, an uneven distribution of chromosomes leads to these syndromes and abnormal characteristics (Rogers, 2018). While each syndrome has its own resulting DNA damages, now a days we have various genetic tests in order to help predict the condition of the fetus and what the risk might be for the mother and child (Feldman, 2017). The other two significant challenges faced in the prenatal period are miscarriage and infertility. Unfortunately between 15-20% of all pregnancies end in a miscarriage which is caused by genetic abnormalities, hormonal problems, infections, or maternal health issues (Feldman, 2017). Depending on the stage of development of the fetus, many cases are considered less of a loss than if the fetus is well into its maturation (Berg, 2017). The loss of a baby is far more significant than most people give credit for, often producing severe depression for the mother (Feldman 2017). 

            While there are many risk and challenges that present themselves during the prenatal period, it is also important to remember the incredible growth that is possible during this developmental period. There is rapid growth, leading to the most complicated anatomy and physiology that our bodies are capable of. It’s amazing to think about the ways that a fetus and the mother work interconnectedly to make sure that the nutrients and environment help to nurture the physical, cognitive and emotional aspects that go with them into the real world. 

                        The Portrayal of Pregnant Mother’s Through Media

            As the world of media expands and fluctuates with each year, so do particular dramatizations of pregnant mothers. It is very common to hear, read, or watch media interpretations of irrational pregnant women. There is this notion that because the hormone levels are changing in the mother’s body, their emotions and cognitive ability are out of control. Yes, the hormones do change in many ways, but the degree to which the hormones induce this “frenzy and forgetfulness” is not often accurate. Women have always been associated with being more emotional human beings and “overreact” to different scenarios. With this stigma already on our shoulders, it makes it easy for media to target the high emotional states of women. As Dr. Mary Kimmel, a medical director of the Perinatal Psychiatry Inpatient Unit and an assistant professor of psychiatry at the University of North Carolina School of Medicine in Chapel Hill stated, 

 “Pregnancy is a transition point in a woman’s life and during any transition, a person’s emotions can be up and down,” Kimmel told Live Science. She said that some women’s emotions don’t change that much when they are expecting, but it’s not unusual for women to have mood swings, especially during the early and late stages of pregnancy.” (Neirenberg, 2017). So yes, it is common to see these mood swings but it is not fair to assume that all women are more emotional. A woman’s body is going through some miraculous change so instead of hepanalyzing the ups and downs, it would be more beneficial if media could shift the focus to all the ways a mother must adjust and prepare for the journey of motherhood. Women face fear and anxiety when it comes to the health and wellness of both themselves and their babies so the more big media outlets can bring positive affirmations, the greater the chance that a woman feels better about what lies ahead.

                                                Conclusion

            The development of a fetus is one of the most precious, sacred, and anticipated moments of anyone’s life. It is important to remember that every situation is unique, with its own set of factors playing a role in the development of the child. The nature and nurture given to that the fetus varies widely across the globe. Certain environments will bring more teratogens, while other areas will bring more psychological trauma to the mother and baby. The miracle of life goes far beyond what any paper can describe when it comes to the physical, cognitive and emotional development of a human. The resilience of the mother, the strength of the baby, and the innate ability for the two bodies to serve each other, is just a glimpse of the complicated but vibrant life ahead for that child. 

`                                                           References

Berg, A. (2017). Abortion and miscarriage. Philosophical Studies, 174(5), 1217. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11098-016-0750-z

Bergh, B. R. H. V. (1990). The influence of maternal emotions during pregnancy on fetal and neonatal behavior. Pre- and Peri-Natal Psychology Journal, 5(2), 119-130. Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/docview/198689930?accountid=8381

Cleveland Clinic. (2014). “Stages Of Pregnancy & Fetal Development.” Cleveland Clinic, Retrieved from my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/7247-fetal-development-stages-of-growth

Feldman, Robert S. (2017). Development Across the Lifespan. Amherst, MA: Pearson Education Inc.  

Hepper, P. (2015). Behavior During the Prenatal Period: Adaptive for Development and Survival. Child Development Perspectives, 9(1), 38–43. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12104

Nierenberg, Cari. (2017, Dec 22). Mood Swings & Mommy Brain: The Emotional Challenges of Pregnancy.” LiveScience, www.livescience.com/51043-pregnancy-emotions.html.

Tearne, J., Allen, K., Herbison, C., Lawrence, D., Whitehouse, A., Sawyer, M., & Robinson, M. (2015). The association between prenatal environment and children’s mental health trajectories from 2 to 14 years. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 24(9), 1015–1024. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-014-0651-7

Rogers, Kara, et al. “Abnormal Development.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 13 July 2018, www.britannica.com/science/prenatal-development/Abnormal-development. (Change to APA)